Discuss the roles of language and reason in history Essay

The study of history is one in which people or communities attempt to understand the nature of humans through the study of events in the past. When we look at historiography or the writings of history, we are looking at the study of historical events that have been seen as relevant and meaningful by historians. So when we study this area of knowledge, we need to think about what affects the way we interpret it, and therefore by association, how it is taught to us. There are various components to the learning and teaching of history and perhaps the two most prominent components are language and reason; two ways of knowing. Language is fundamentally a systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols. This is in itself linked to reason, which is a rational motive for a belief or action. Indeed language is a powerful tool that can communicate beliefs and facts but also manipulate such facts. Language has an effect on our emotions, our perception and what we believe in and can lead to history being manipulated over generations. Therefore, it is justifiable to say that this affects our reasoning. Therefore, I will be looking at how these ways of knowing affect the way in which a complex topic is taught: the Second World War (WW2) and some of its events. I will be addressing knowledge issues, which are questions that relate to our understanding of the world and us, combined with our desire for knowledge. I will look at how the holocaust is possibly taught in a German school, as well as how the Kamikaze attacks are taught in a Japanese school. I will also look at the way these events have been taught to me, as someone who attends a British school. The knowledge issues that will form the basis of my essay are: how do languages affect our opinion of a historical event, what role does our reasoning have in understanding historical events and whether we can study history without reason and language. I will be arguing that language and reason do have definitive roles in history. If we are to look at how WW2 may be taught in Germany, we have to perhaps look at Germany’s stance on the event now. Indeed a survey in Sarah Ann Gordon’s Book Hitler, Germans and ‘The Jewish Question’, showed the sentiments of the German people in the years after WW21. This can be seen below:  Statement  Percentage of people who agree  Hitler was right in his treatment of the Jews.  0%  Hitler went too far in his treatment of the Jews, but something had to be done to keep them in bounds. The actions against the Jews were in no way justified.  77%  Indeed, judging by the above results, it is possible that the majority of Germans abhor the Holocaust. The way in which they do so however, is very much linked into their language. Germany would most likely not want a repeat of the events of WW2 and so the way in which it is taught is one in which the actions of the Nazi party is abhorred, perhaps even more so than in the schools of other countries. Indeed if you look at the response of German historians and their analysis of WW2, many have been damning of events such as the holocaust. This can be seen with Hans-Ulrich Wehler, who in a 2006 interview expressed his support for the imprisonment of the British historian, David Irving, for Holocaust denial2.

Scientific Research

Scientific Research Scientific Research is method based on collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data within a framework. It is Information based on empirical, based on observation or measurement of relevant information or free from bias or emotions and objectivity. All aspects of the investigation are described in sufficient detail, so that the study can be repeated by anyone. Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step by step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data analyze them and draw valid conclusion. Scientific method is techniques or procedures used to analyze empirical evidence in an attempt to confirm of disprove prior concepts† Empirical means something is verifiable by observation, experimentation, or experience. Characteristics of Scientific Research 1. Purposive ness 2. Rigor 3. Testability 4. Replicability 5. Precision and Confidence 6. Objectivity 7. Generalizability 8. Parsimony Purposive ness resea rch start with a definite aim and purpose. Example: The focus is on increasing the commitment of employees to the organization, as this will beneficial in many ways. Less absentees, increased performance level. Rigorous research involves a good theoretical base and a carefully thought out methodology. For example: The manager of a company ask 10-12 employees to indicate what would their level of commitment. If he solely reaches on conclusion how employee commitment can be increased. Its unscientific method. Testability: Formulation of hypothesis and its testability. To test logically developed hypothesis to see whether or not the data support the hypotheses developed after the careful study of the problem situation. For Example: Taking the previous example, the manager or researcher develop certain hypothesis on how employment commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose. Replicability: Repetition of results. If similar finding emerge on the basis of data collected by other organizations employing the same method. To put t differently, the results of test hypotheses should be supported again and yet the same type of research is repeated in similar circumstances. Precision and Confidence Precision: It refers to the closeness of the findings to â€Å"reality† based on a sample. It reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe. Confidence: Probability that our estimations are correct. Confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true. Objectivity: The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; it should be based on the facts of the findings derived from the actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values. Generalizability: It refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to others. Parsimony: Simplicity in explaining phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, it is always proffered to complex research frameworks that considered an unmanageable number of factors. The Hypothetico- Deductive Method 1. Observation 2. Preliminary information gathering 3. Theory formulation 4. Hypothesizing 5. Scientific data collection 6. Data analysis 7. Deduction

Marketing Research - Individual Data Analysis Report Paper

Marketing - Individual Data Analysis Report - Research Paper Example Marketing research objectives are specific precise pieces of information that the researcher aims to find. The objectives culminate to address the marketing management problem (McDaniel & Gates, 1998). Context A very popular TV channel, NBN wants to introduce a new show in the market. For this the company is conducting a market research on the attitude of consumers’ towards reality TV. A set of 6 market research objectives have been set. Methodology of the market research Focus groups were used for qualitative analysis. Focus groups discussion is a qualitative research technique in which a group of 6 to 10 people spend 1-2 hours discussing their opinions in an informal and relaxed setting (Boyce, 2009). The focus groups conversation was monitored by an independent individual and the conversation recorded and the transcript was used for further analysis. For quantitative analysis, a survey questionnaire was used. The survey questionnaire was administered to a total of 300 respo ndents. The questionnaire covered the demographic profiles of the respondents where they were asked to share their gender and age. Respondents were asked to respond to a set of 12 questions on a Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. These questions covered the attitude of viewers to reality TV shows. Quantitative Analysis This section covers the quantitative analysis to all the six MROs as analysed with the data from the survey respondent. Demographics The first step in performing quantitative analysis is to understand the demographics of the respondents. In terms of gender, majority of the respondents were females. The table below shows the same: Majority of the respondents were in the age group 18 – 25. It is interesting to note that there are about 21.33 % (a total of 64) respondents who are below the age group of 18 and may watch reality TV shows. In terms of popularity, Big-Boss was the most popular show as the favourite show amongst the respondents. The table below shows the frequency of respondents for their reality TV show preference: Relationship between connecting with participants and enjoyment of reality TV shows Both the variables, connection with the participants as well as enjoyment of reality TV shows are responded by the respondents in a Likert scale. Both are nominal data. To establish relationship between such variables, the appropriate test is the chi-square test (Levin & Rubin, 2009). Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship in the consumers feeling connected to the participants and the enjoyment of reality TV shows Alternate Hypothesis: There is a significant relationship in the consumers feeling connected to the participants and the enjoyment of reality TV shows Statistical Implication The table below gives the chi-square output for the two variables: The calculated value of chi-square statistic between two variables is 17.478 with degrees of freedom for the test as 16. Since the Sig. value (0.355) is more than t he critical value of 0.05, we can conclude that there is no significant relationship in the consumers feeling connected to the participants and the enjoyment of reality TV shows. Business implication There is no relationship between people feeling connected to the participants and their enjoyment level. Producers hence interested to create and launch a reality TV show can select participants to whom, people might not feel

Analysis adolescence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Analysis adolescence - Essay Example My goal in this paper is to analyse adolescence and youth of today as echoed in Hall’s â€Å"sensation-seeking adolescents† several decades ago. The reasons behind the innate aggressive behavior of males and females are examined. Sexual development is discussed to give light to the questions of heightened sexuality during adolescence. I will try to establish the link between sensation-seeking and risk behavior, especially the occurrence of confusions in adolescents. The different aspects of adolescents’ confusions on matters like physical changes, eating habits, and sexuality are viewed. Their desire to build their own identity keeps them at odd with their parents. They feel nobody loves them so they become closer to their friends. But sometimes, they fall victims to wrong companions and they are led to drugs, unreasonable behavior and other forms of vices. Peer pressure and family pressures are also discussed to unravel what’s going on inside an adolescen t’s mind. Another controversial aspect is the analysis of the child’s sexuality. ... Hall’s â€Å"storm and stress† view is examined in three key aspects: conflict with parents, mood disruptions and peer pressures. In all three aspects, evidence supports a modified storm and stress view that takes into account individual differences and cultural disparities. This paper will present research that both supports and critises the inherent nature of adolescents. The analysis of the case is achieved in three main sections. I will begin by giving the meaning of adolescence. ‘Adolescence is the process of changing from a child into an adult’ (Hurrelnan1994). Furthermore, rapid changes in body size and shape are the most obvious signs of approaching adolescence. Both girls and boys grow swiftly in height. ‘The arm and leg bones lengthen, and the chin and jaws develop so the face takes on a more mature look’ (Rice 1986). Finally, Hall’s observation of adolescence as a period of storm and stress is investigated before concluding. I t is during adolescence that young people mature physically, becomes responsible and start to face the world on their own. ‘It usually begins at the age of 11 and 14, and continues six to ten years’ (Allen 1993). Physical changes are evident in their bodies. ‘The girl’s body becomes more rounded and soft, her hips broaden and her breasts start to develop. Her voice deepens and pubic hair starts to grow. On the other hand, the boy’s body becomes firmer and angular, his voice deepens, his shoulder broadens and hair develops in his body and feet. Sex glands mature in both sexes’ (Santrock 1987). These changes begin before puberty and differ from one person to another. ‘In both sexes, the reproductive organs gradually reach their adult sizes and functions during the first two-thirds of adolescence.

Women who belong to the Cult of True Womanhood Thesis

Women who belong to the Cult of True Womanhood - Thesis Example The literary pieces, depicting the life and activities of traditional women, portrayed them as highly God-fearing, religious minded, virtuous, chaste, complying and dedicated wives and mothers, who pretended meekness and compliance towards husbands. Although the two female characters under-analysis, including Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peter, appear to be submissive towards their husbands, yet secretly they dislike the allegations and attitude being witnessed by Hale and Peters while inquiring the offence committed by Mrs. Right. Thus, the play serves as a humble attempt to portray the miserable situation women were undergoing during nineteenth century, with the secret feelings of rebellion against the unjustified and inappropriate male domination. Consequently, the play contains elements of feminist movement, which aimed to win equal status and right to vote for women eventually. Published and performed in 1916, the play under the title Trifles is a one-act play by the American feminist-authoress Susan Glaspell. The drama depicts two purported supportive characters i.e. Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, both of which strive to prove Mrs. Wright guiltless out of the feelings of sympathy and piety for her, as they know that she was leading a pathetic life under the control of her harsh and aggressive husband. A traditional wife, according to the cult, also pretends submissiveness towards her husband, and seldom involves into arguments or harsh attitude even in response to the insulting attitude and humiliating words delivered by the husbands. â€Å"It is certain that in whatever situation of life a woman is placed from her cradle to her grave, a spirit of obedience and submission, pliability of temper, and humility of mind are required of her.† (Burnap, 2002: 3) The same can be witnessed in the female characters under-analysis, as both Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peter s remain standing far from the fire in chilly cold during the inquiry procedure, which also serves as the

Slope mining coal Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Slope mining coal - Research Proposal Example However, with surface depletion of coal and the receding of the levels at which coal strata are found to deeper underground, slope mines are more commonly being used (ThinkQuest, 2006). Slope mining of coal is the process by which coal is tapped from the coal bed or coal seam lying deep under a mountain or ground surface, through an inclined opening on the mountain side. From the opening, a slanting tunnel that is bored through the rock strata present over the coal, down to the coal seam, is used for mining the coal. If the stratum of coal is inclined and exposed to the surface of mountain side or ground, the slope mine may be created along the coal layer (MSN Encarta, 2008). If the gradation of the slope is steeply inclined, transportation of the coal out of the slope mine is carried out by an electrically operated belt conveyor system or an electric hoist and steel rope. If the slope has a gradual incline, coal transportation is undertaken by using a trolley locomotive running on tracks (MSN Encarta, 2008). In Figure 1. above, the mine shaft slanting down to the coal bed is seen. Through the slope tunnel, conveyors transport the coal out of the mine. In cases where there are two shafts as seen in the above diagram, special commuting devices are used for transporting the men in and out of the mine through one shaft; while the coal is taken out through the other (ThinkQuest, 2006). Transportation of the mined coal to markets or ports are mainly by railroad, road, shipping, slurry pipelines, and long distance conveyor systems which though useful, can accommodate only limited tonnage of coal and run from one source to only one destination. â€Å"As the overland distance to the coal deposits increases, the costs become greater and the coal becomes less competitive† (Clark: 28). According to world reserve statistics, coal is the second most abundant fossil found in nature. The cost of coal mining depends on mine characteristics,

Generic Strategies of Sony Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Generic Strategies of Sony - Case Study Example This magnetic tape recorder evolved from G-Type to Model P which became the company's first profitable product. In 1957, Sony released the world's first pocket transistor radio, establishing a market leadership position for the company. The founding fathers were circumspect and did not gloat on their initial success. They sagaciously went about their work to create the global monolith with concentration and zeal. It took decades to transform the company from a small sized enterprise to what it is today. The company's first product was rice cooker. It established its first overseas operation with a capital investment of $500,000 in New York City. It also became the first Japanese firm in the United States to make public offering of two million shares of common stock in the form of American Depository Receipts (ADRs) in 1961. Morita was the driving force for the Walkman personal stereo in the late 1970s. The Walkman was a player and it did not receive enthusiastic response in the market in the initial stages. But the product's compact size and sound quality soon set the benchmark for a revolutionary market demand. Sony introduced the color television named "Trinitron" in 1968. And in 1972, the company set its first manufacturing in San Diego, California, in the United States. ... But the product's compact size and sound quality soon set the benchmark for a revolutionary market demand. Sony introduced the color television named "Trinitron" in 1968. And in 1972, the company set its first manufacturing in San Diego, California, in the United States. It was also the first Japanese manufacturing facility in the United States. Its presence in the United States helped to rapidly transform its operations and come out with several gadgets in the entertainment industry. The charged coupled device or CCD, the initial avatar of the camcorder and digital still camera was developed by Kazuo Iwama, president of Sony from 1976. Iwama died in 1982 but he lived to see the launch of the compact disc player, an innovation that changed the way people listened to music. From 1982 to 1995, Norio Ohga steered Sony into the modern age with product planning, stylish product design and innovative marketing. More was to follow with records and the movies. Sony took over CBS Records in 1988 and Columbia Pictures in 1989, two of the world's largest content producers. These form Sony Music Entertainment (SME) and Sony Pictures Entertainment (SPE) today. SME has featured Michael Jackson, Bruce Springsteen, Mariah Carey, Celine Dion, and Pearl Jam. Top rating films such as Sleepless in Seattle, Jumanji, Air Force One, Men in Black and Stuart Little have been produced by SPE. In 1994, the Sony PlayStation game console was launched in Japan. With PlayStation2, Sony has become the most successful game manufacturer in the world. Nobuyuki Idei, the present Chairman and CEO, is responsible for moving Sony into the digital network era. He set Sony's business model by augmenting Sony's core competencies with business partnerships with other companies. Sony

Conflict in the school Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Conflict in the school Systems - Essay Example It is possible that parents will be ready to accept the democratic model of school education, but at the same time they will express dissatisfaction with different concrete things (Robinson, 2000). Or, on the contrary, parents may consider the main task of school education to be the development of children’s love for freedom, in the development of their personal potential, realization of their creative abilities, but the school offers the system of tough routine study. The conflict of values can occur between a teacher and school administration or between children, especially in the high school (Richmon, 2005). The conflict of values is the conflict, which can’t be resolved by any psychological means. The conflict of values is the controversy which can’t be resolved in open confrontation as every person has a right for his/her own hierarchy of values. In resolution of conflicts of values much depends on the school leaders. Some researches find the way out in values based leadership model â€Å"values and conflict will continue to remain contentious issues of challenge for administrators but the adoption of a values based leadership model could assist school leaders to succinctly define the realities of their very complex role despite the challenges. The values-based model has tremendous potential and possibilities to transform the existing face of educational administration provided it is seamlessly integrated within educational organizations to become the new standard of successful and meaningful leadership practice† (Zupan, 2012, p. 184). Certainly, the discussion of various values is necessary, but if it is impossible, the only way out is to organize the collaboration of people with the same values. It is necessary the parents should have the opportunity to appear in school where there are teachers with the same values. Teachers’ staff should also consist of people

Falls Prevention in Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Falls Prevention in Australia - Essay Example Unintentional falls are common risks mostly among elderly individuals who may experience non-fatal injuries from these falls. Fall-related injuries are common among these older adults, hip fractures being one of them. Mortality rates in relation to falls are also high in this age group, and death is even a major possibility among those 85 years and above (Currie, 2007). This is also the case in Australia where the common sufferers of falls belong to the above 65 age group (Department of Health and Ageing, 2012). Fall-related injuries mostly include hip fractures and wrist fractures. Some patients have also been known to suffer head injuries from their falls. The older the patient, the risk of death is also higher, especially among the above 85 years old age group (Department of Health and Ageing, 2012). The cost and health impact of these falls are also significant, sometimes leading to other health problems and issues (Currie, 2007). For the elderly individuals, the recovery period from their falls is usually longer. Due to prolonged healing, they may also develop pressure ulcers which can further delay the healing process (Currie, 2007). Falls management cost the government millions of dollars, with costs amounting to 170 million dollars for fall-related injuries. Moreover, the risk of re-injury or future falls is also an ever-persistent risk for patients (Currie, 2007). In effect, falls are a significant public health issue which needs to be addressed by health authorities. Throughout the years, various studies have been undertaken on the problem of falls and related injuries, including interventions to prevent and manage their occurrence. This study seeks to evaluate the clinical question: How significant is lighting in the prevention of falls among the elderly? This study shall first evaluate the literature on falls prevention, critically evaluating such literature and assessing their formal and structural validity and reliability. This review shall also d iscuss the search strategy applied in order to establish studies to be reviewed. Then, it will identify the critical assessment tool to be used to evaluate the data. A critical review of the validity of the study findings will also be discussed. Potential barriers and facilitators to the implementation and/or maintenance of the strategy shall then follow. This paper shall end with a conclusion which is based on the quality of the studies and relevance of the findings. Body There were six studies retrieved for this study, and most of them were quantitative studies. Five of the studies had a prospective experimental design. One study had a correlational design. All of the studies were quantitative studies, in other words, they are an empirical assessment of phenomena using numerical and statistical analysis and frameworks (Bruce, Pope, and Sanistreet, 2008). Five of the studies were prospective studies as they were carried out on respondents who would be recruited and who were to be s ubjected to various procedures and processes. Experimental studies are those which evaluate cause and effect relations among respondents which are studied under controlled settings (Bruce, et.al., 2008).

A museum visit to autry museum los angeles and its relation to class Essay

A museum visit to autry museum los angeles and its relation to class - Essay Example This showed not only the basics of what occurred at this time, but also represents and observes the past of how things were. The vastness of the land, as well as the cowboys desires to chase the large animals were two of the concepts which I immediately noticed. This was followed by observations of the hand made tools, hats and other artifacts which were important to the cowboys. The significance was based on how each of the men had to change their level of innovation to try to settle and build a specific life, while having the sense of dominance over a specific piece of land. This led to the noticed cowboy movies that were also represented, which held this same ideal and continued to show the mindset of cowboys that were settling in the West. The representation of cowboys after the 1900s that is seen in the exhibition is one which is seen to link to the myth of the cowboy. The representations of the cowboy outfits, paintings of the salon girls and the guitars also represent this ide ology. The concept of movies such as â€Å"The Lone ranger† and the idolized cowboy are highlighted in these particular areas, specifically with reference to what the cowboys became.

Arthur Miller’s, A View From The Bridge Essay Example for Free

Arthur Miller’s, A View From The Bridge Essay Arthur Miller’s ‘A View From The Bridge’ is a great play set in the run down area of Brooklyn, New York, a community in Red Hook, during the 1950s. It explores the themes of justice, unnatural love, codes of society and respect. The play focuses on the jealousy the protagonist, Eddie Carbone, exerts towards his wife’s illegally immigrated Italian cousins, Marco and Rodolpho, due to his passionate feelings for his own niece, Catherine, consequently ending with his life. The key events of the play are all very reasonable and typical in reflection to the time it was written. The disastrous aftermath of World War Two and the Great Depression left people with one dream; the American dream. To escape their less economically developed country and lead a better life many travelled to America. Italians suffered most excruciatingly hence it is they who went through mass migration, but lead it a better life they did not. Confrontation with suspicious Americans and intense hardship only crippled their self-esteem and lead them to be more independent. In ‘A View From The Bridge’ we witness how this period of time effected and shaped the behaviour of characters in the play. Arthur Miller uses Alfieri to make the play much easier to understand and enjoyable for us, the audience. In this essay I am going to analyse how exactly this has been done. Arthur Miller cleverly uses Alfieri in a number of ways. Alfieri is the narrator; Alfieri plays a character; and Alfieri is a good example of what some call a Greek Chorus. He is our narrator and plays the role of an Italian-American lawyer which makes us expect his words to be truthful. Alfieri also very effectively helps distinguish scenes, expand on characters and make the play more explicit, just as a Greek Chorus would do in old Greek tragedies. Doing this allows us to understand and follow up on the play, its themes and events. â€Å"†¦In Sicily, from where their fathers came, the law has not been a friendly idea since the Greeks were beaten†¦Justice is very important here†: Alfieri’s opening monologue, Act 1; he is the Greek Chorus. Alfieri gives us some background information on Red Hook and its neighbourhood, allowing the audience to form an impression on the characters and their morals. Having knowledge on the circumstances explored in the play, what with the illegal immigration, this line in the monologue can infer one of two things: the Italians in Red Hook cannot turn to the law because they are illegal immigrants, or the Italians will not turn to the law due their lack of trust as a result of their Italian customs. Either way, since turning to the law is never going to be the answer, the obvious way to gain justice is for the law to be taken into the people’s hands. Knowing this helps us, the audience, understand why certain events take place later on in the play. We understand Marco is an immigrant and therefore understand why he uses violence to enforce justice against Eddie for his actions. The theme of justice is introduced here. Eddie Carbone’s death at the end of the play came as no surprise to us all. Alfieri had already told us from the beginning that he sat there and â€Å"watched it run its bloody course†¦this one’s name was Eddie Carbone’’. Eddie Carbone will die, but in no ordinary way; he will be murdered which we can indicate from Alfieri mentioning â€Å"bloody course†. Alfieri put great emphasis on the fact that the people of Red Hook take justice into their own hands in his opening monologue which, if we put two and two together, must mean that Eddie’s blood will be spilt for one’s justice. This time Arthur Miller uses Alfieri to really hook, and keep us hooked, in the play. Us knowing that Eddie will be murdered before it actually happens means that we, the audience, know more than the characters. Throughout the play, no matter what turn of event takes place, we know that Eddie’s death is inevitable. This creates a very interesting and suspense atmosphere as we are eager to find out how exactly each character’s action leads up to the death; how Eddie’s own actions may have a huge impact on Marco feeling compelled to end his life. The theme of unnatural love is also first made clearer to us through the use of Alfieri and his unveiling of Eddie’s true inner feeling for Catherine, although Eddie himself denies such possibility which is typical of longshoremen, or men generally, of the time; expressing your emotions just wasn’t a masculine thing to do. Alfieri claims that Eddie has â€Å"too much love for the niece†, which makes Eddie’s resentment towards Rodolpho understandable to us. Why Eddie opposed Catherine’s relationship with Rodolpho was at first quite inexplicit, with many of us assuming it was just the possessiveness of an uncle, but Arthur Miller’s use of Alfieri’s, again as a Greek chorus, makes the play more understandable, and not only that, it also enhances the dramatic factor of the play; we know Eddie will die at the end of the play and are now interested to know how his feelings for Catherine will play a part in his tragic death. In Act 1 Alfieri and Eddie both highlight the codes of the society of Red Hook, made due to the mistrust in the law. Eddie outlines the consequences of snitching on the immigrants whilst Alfieri explains to us that the immigrants will take the law into their own hands. When Eddie is on the verge to call the immigration Bureau later in Act 2 Alfieri tells him he â€Å"won’t have a friend in the world†, reminding Eddie and us that the society will destroy him if he informs because he is going against their codes of society. Here Alfieri, in spite of being a lawyer who should support the law, is trying to prevent Eddie from making a huge mistake. Alfieri is an American lawyer from an Italian background which is why he is aware that if Eddie goes along with his actions then he will have the society to answer to. We trust Alfieri, a lawyer to be a good judge of character and rational, because he is professionally detached. However, with Eddie he has a slight connection which he mentions in his opening monologue: I had represented his father in an accident case some years before, and I was acquainted with the family in a casual way. When Eddie did call the Immigration Bureau, Alfieri and the audience know that Eddie’s actions were against the codes of society and citizens of the time would not abide by the law, no, they will enforce their justice though violence. However despite being aware of this, Alfieri offers a different opinion on the codes of society to Marco. â€Å"To promise not to kill is not dishonourable† and â€Å"Only God makes justice†. This makes the play very much more dramatic because on one hand Alfieri goes against the law advising Eddie not to snitch, and on the other hand Alfieri goes against the codes of society by telling Marco not to kill Eddie. This adds to the dramatics because we know that Alfieri’s attempts to prevent Eddie’s death will fail, he himself mentioned being â€Å"powerless†, so we continue to watch whether Marco listens to Alfieri or does go out to kill, sticking by his Italian customs. In addition, I think that Arthur Miller has decided to make one character go against the law and the other by the law to show that both the law and a person’s morale can be wrong – the law is not always correct and neither is a person’s judgement of what is right and wrong. This too makes it dramatic as the audience can now question themselves whether the steps taken by each character was right or wrong. The portrayal of Eddie Carbone in the play is, without a doubt, negative. His unnatural feeling for Catherine, his horrible behaviour towards Rodolpho and his betrayal to the cousins forces us to dislike his character. However, to conclude the play, Arthur Miller decides to express Alfieri’s sympathy for Eddie to shape our final impression of him, leaving us confused as to whether Eddie was a heroic character or a villain. †¦even as I know how wrong he was, and his death useless, I tremble†¦something perversely pure calls to me from his memory†¦for he allowed himself to be wholly known and for that I think I will love him more then all my sensible clients†. Alfieri does not stop liking Eddie because he understands what he was like. He is suggesting to us that although we recognise Eddie’s actions as immoral and wrong, perhaps we should delve deeper into what provoked Eddie to commit the crimes he did. His love for Catherine, while wrong, is pure, so should he have been punished by death? But maybe if he had listened to Alfieri and compromised with Catherine and Rodolpho’s relationship none of this would have happened. Alfieri had repeated many times, as well as in his closing monologue, that it is â€Å"better to settle for half†; making compromises is best. This is the very meaningful message Arthur Miller portrays to us through Alfieri throughout the play. To conclude, I believe Alfieri, despite not taking much part in the action, has a very vital part in the play. He is, metaphorically speaking, the bridge in the play, who has been distinctively used as a viewpoint of the story. Without him we would have been left clueless after watching the play as it is he who fills in all the gaps and answers all the unanswered questions lingering in our minds. He also raises suspense in the play like no other, enhancing our enjoyment. When Eddie is on the urge of calling the Immigration Bureau Alfieri, despite being a lawyer who should support the law, discourages Eddie from proceeding with the call. You won’t have a friend in the world, Eddie! Even those who understand will turn against you, even those who feel the same will despise you! † He reminds Eddie and the audience that the society will destroy him if he informs because he is going against the codes of society. Alfieri is knowledgeable on these codes of so opposes the law as he does not want Addie to make this mistake probably because he is becoming too attached to Eddie’s story as he offers a different opinion on the codes of society to Marco. To promise not to kill is not dishonourable† and â€Å"Only God makes justice†. Both Alfieri and the audience know that Eddie’s act was against the codes of society and in the society of the time Eddie will be punished though violence as this is the only way Marco, an Italian immigrant, will obtain his justice, based on the fact that the Italians did not trust the law. But yet Alfieri went against the codes of society by telling Marco not to kill Eddie, whilst on the other hand he goes against the law advising Eddie not to inform. This make the play more dramatic because the audience know that Alfieri’s attempts to try and prevent Eddie’s death will not have worked, reinforcing that he is powerless, so they continue to see how Eddie dies. Also I think that Arthur Miller has decided to make one character go against the law and the other by the law to show that both the law and a person’s morale can be wrong – the law is not always correct and neither is a person’s judgement of what is right and wrong. This too makes it dramatic as the audience can now question themselves whetehr the steps taken by each character was right or wrong. He doesn’t stop liking Eddie, because he understands what he was like. He mourns Eddie, but with alarm, because he knows it will happen again. Alfieri is the voice of reason amongst great chaos, but chaos wins, probably because of the tense situation. I confess that something perversely pure calls to me from his memory. To what extent is it possible to feel sympathy for Eddie? Consider in your answer the part played by the Italian community in his behaviour. When Alfieri concludes his feelings at the end of the play, he is suggesting to the audience that although we recognize Eddies actions as immoral and wrong, perhaps we may still be able to sympathise with him. In order to answer this, we have to delve deeper into what provoked Eddie to commit the crimes he did, which ended eventually in his own death. At the beginning of the play, Miller wants us to recognise just how good a man Eddie can be. With his Arthur Miller ends the play in a dramatic and thought provoking way. The audience question whether Eddie deserved to die or not. All Eddie had done is fallen in love, perhaps with the wrong person, but love is a pure emotion that cannot be controlled. Eddie’s feelings lead him to call the immigration Bureau but he was not in the right state of mind as he himself was confused about his feelings for Catherine co should he have been punished by death? Arthur Miller uses Alfieri to close the play portraying a meaningful message, a phrase which he repeats many times; â€Å"And yet it is better to settle for half†. Making compromises is best. Being greedy can be regretful so it is better to be happy with what you’ve got than risk your life for more. Although Alfiieri does not take much part in the action, he has a vital role in the play. He is the narrator, the lawyer and the mediator (he tries to keep the peace). He is, metaphorically speaking, the bridge in the title. He is separate from the main action so could be described as looking down on it. He also links the Italian American community with America itself in terms of its laws which do not necessarily reflect traditional Italian views on justice. Significantly by the title â€Å"A view from the bridge†, this is indeed exactly the role of Alfieri’s character. Miller uses distinctively the character of Alfieri as a viewpoint of the story , something he does in a very elegant and dynamic way. In conclusion, Alfieri’s role within this play makes it entertaining, enjoyable and easier to understand for the audience. I believe that without Alfieri the play would not have binded well therefore the audience would not have had a good understanding. It’s like having a building without its foundation. Arthur Miller’s use of Alfieri managed to draw in the audience’s attention, build up suspense at the beginning of the play, make it clear why certain events took place and why characters behave the way they do, so I think that without Alfieri, ‘A View From The Bridge’ will be meaningless and confusing to watch.

Work Group Performance And Satisfaction At Utp Management Essay

Work Group Performance And Satisfaction At Utp Management Essay For the purposes of completing on my report about work group, performance and satisfaction, I was selecting my workplace as a organization requirement to evaluate. My workplace is UTP. Base on references from www.utp.edu.my, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) was established on January 10, 1997. UTP offers a wide range of engineering and technology programmes at undergraduate and postgraduate levels complemented with a strong focus on Research and Development. Due to assess of performance and satisfaction of a work group, I was selecting one of the UTPs department which is IT Multimedia Services Dept. or ITMS. Under ITMS dept, it has sub division called Information Technology and Facilities Operation, named as ITFO. Furthermore, ITFO has 3 work groups which consist of Inventory Management, Deployment Production and IT Helpdesk Training. These groups are classified as Formal Groups and characterized as Task Groups. All the said groups have interdependence from each other as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1: ITFO Work Group: source: UTP ITMS Dept. 1.1 Explanation of work group, performance and satisfaction Based on reference from Wikipedia.com, the definition of work group is a group of people working together toward a common goal, also known as a  working group. Another definition of work group is a group which consists of two or more individual that interacts primarily to share information and to make decision to help each member perform within his or her area of responsibility. Work group have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work that requires joint effort. So their performance is merely the summation of each group members individual contribution. There is no positive synergy that would create an overall level of performance that is greater than sum of the input. (Robbins, 2004) With regard to Group Behaviour Model which I will elaborate later in this report, can lead members of a group towards developing effective groups where it can improve performance and satisfaction of its members and ensure success of the organisation. Effective groups are groups that have creative ideas, accomplish their tasks and can adapt to any changes. Group members will be more involved with the group and goals of the organisation. As a manager, he or she need to see and assess the strategies required to develop effective groups in an organisation. Elements that need extra attention are those involving people, organisation and the assigned task/s. A high degree of understanding between the group leader and his/her members also has a positive effect on the performance and satisfaction of group members. 2.0 Five Components of GBM being practices from selected company Figure 2.1: Group Behaviour Model. Source: Robbins, S.P.(2003) Group Behavior Model or GBM as illustrated on figure 2.1 are the main components which are influencing to the performance and satisfaction levels of groups. I will explain each components of GBM where the company being practices. 2.1 An external condition is imposed on group Every work groups is influence by external conditions imposed by outside it. This external conditions include organizations overall strategy, the structure of authority, formal regulations, resources, employees selection process, performance appraisal and reward system, culture and workplace condition. Organizational Strategy, typically, overall strategy of the  organization  is usually determined  by top management. They  have  developed  the organizational goals  and how to achieve  these  goals.  For example,  they  can  direct the  organization  to reduce costs, improve  quality, etc. These  strategies  can  affect the  power of  the various  working groups, particularly in  determining  the resources  needed  to  carry out from them.  For example, termination of contract to IT maintenance vendor and UTPs employees need to take over. This action  will affect the  work group  which will  increase  their  anxiety  and further potential to  improve  the  internal  conflict. The organization has the authority structures that define who reports to whom, who make decisions, and the types of decisions can be made by individuals or groups. This structure determines where a working group placed in a hierarchical organization, the formal leader of a group, and as well as formal relationships between the groups. Organization established rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions and other forms formal regulations to standardize the behavior of workers. The more rules formally applied to all workers, the more consistent and predictable behavior from them. Meanwhile, organizations resource such as money, time, materials, and other equipment have a major impact on group behavior. Some organizations have a lot of resources on which the employee obtained modern tools and equipment, sufficient and high quality. Organization with limited resources will affected of group activities. For employee selection process, A member of a work group is also a member of the organisation because the group is a part of the organisation. Accordingly, the criteria employed by the organisation for employee selection purposes will also be used to decide who becomes part of a group. Another variable that can affect all employees is the performance appraisal and reward system. The company provided specific, challenging and achievable goals. Reward will be given to both individual and groups for their achievement. Since groups are part of a bigger organisation, the behaviour of group members are also influenced by the manner in which organizations appraise a certain task that has been achieved and the kind of behavior that is rewarded. Each organization has their own culture in which it has defined standard behavior is acceptable and not acceptable to the employee. After a few months joining the organization, most employees will begin to understand the cultural practice in the organization. Group members are also part of the organization must follow dominant cultural practices of the organization although they have their own subculture. Subculture refers to a culture that received only adopted by certain groups within the organization. Finally, work group behaviour is also influenced by the workplace condition where condition of the workplace as provided by the organisation. Physical layout of employees work space, the location of equipment, etc are provided with amicable work environment. All these can simultaneously be obstructions and opportunities for the interaction of work groups. 2.2 Resources for Group Members Figure 2.2: General resources available to group members The potential level of achievement of the group is dependent on the resources carried by each member of the group. In this section, we will look at two sources generally highly significant, the ability of self and personality characteristics. Personal Capability means the knowledge, skills and abilities that exist in an individual. A large part of the groups performance can be predicted by assessing the knowledge and skills that exist in each of its members. It is true, even though a group of players who are moderate, but because the best coach, team spirit is high, they can finally beat a group of players much better. But this does not always happen. Evidence shows that there is a positive correlation between good interpersonal skills and group achievement. This refers to the management and resolution of conflict, cooperation in problem solving and communication skills. According to the ITFO group members, the manager has been selecting each member following their skill and capability. Many  studies  about personality traits have shows that  there is  a  clear  relationship between the characteristics personality  and attitude  and  behavior of  the group.  The properties  have a  positive relationship  with our culture  also  showed  a positive relationship  with productivity, morale and  closeness  or  solidarity  groups.  These features  also  include features  such as  easily hang out,  take initiative,  openness, and  flexibility.  On the other hand,  negative features  such as  authoritarianism, dominant, and  not  according to  custom (unconventionality)  showed  a negative relationship  with productivity, morale  and the closeness of  the group.  These  personality traits  affect  the performance of the  group  by the way  people interact  with  other  members of  the  group. 2.3 Group Structure The working group has a structure that could form the behavior of group members. It also enables the majority of individual behavior and group performance groups described and predicted. The structure of the group include formal leadership, roles, norms, group status, group size, composition and the degree of closeness of the group. (Please refer Appendix for the main Group Structure and function of ITMS dept.) (a) Formal Leadership Nearly all work groups have a formal leader. ITMS dept has managers, supervisors, project leader and head of a particular committee such as ITFO. Leaders play an important role in the success of a group. (b) Roles Each member of a work group has his/her own role to play with a set of expected behavior patterns accompanying his/her position and responsibilities within the group. It found that, each person of ITFO have more than one role to play at any given time within his/her different groups. Beside of ITFO task, the members from level 2 and 1 (figure 1.1) have their main job such as computer lab administration. (c) Norms All groups have established norms. These norms, which strongly influence work behavior was defined as acceptable standards of behavior. An effective work group will establish norms on quality, punctuality, absenteeism, safety, honesty in giving ideas and others. (d) Group Status Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Awarding of status can influence the behavior of groups. ITFO practicing the title hold of the workgroups leaders are depending of staff grade such as grade ST3 in level 2 and ST2 and ST1 at level 1 (figure 1.1). (e) Group Size Smaller groups are more productive than larger ones. On the other hand, larger groups deal better with problem solving since more ideas are put forth. ITFO is a small group that consists of 3 to 6 members of each workgroups. (f) Group Composition Most group of ITMS and ITFO have their skill and knowledge. When the group consists of various personalities gender, age, education level and experiences, the greater the chances are for that group to accomplish its task successfully. Heterogeneous groups are more effective compared with homogeneous ones because they possess more abilities, skills, and information as a result of having members from a variety of backgrounds. However, it is also worth noting that both heterogeneous and homogeneous groups have their own strengths and weaknesses. (g) Cohesiveness ITFO workgroups are differ in their level of cohesiveness, which is the degree of members being attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. For instance, some work groups are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of time together, the groups small size facilitates high interaction or the group has experienced external threats, which has resulted in its members becoming very close. Cohesiveness is important since it has proven to be positive towards the productivity of a group. 2.4 Group Processes Figure 2.3: General resources available to group members When the working group in which each member contributions are not clear, there is a tendency for individuals to reduce effort. In other words, social loafing describes the loss of certain processes as a result the group. However, the processes also can produce results positive such as the group could produce output exceeds input used. Heterogeneous group are potential to generate various creative alternatives. Figure 2.3 and 2.4 illustrated the resource of group members and effects of group process. Figure 2.4: Effects of group processes. Source: Adapted from Robbins (2003). 2.5 Group Task Tasks can be classified as either simple or complex. A standard task or routine is usually simple. A complex task is usually unusual as not in the norm and is seldom carried out. With simple or routine, group members simply need to follow the standard procedure in performing the task without the need to discuss the alternatives. Similarly, group members need to interact more often if the degree of task dependency is high. Group performance relies on effective communication and minimum level of conflict among members. 3.0 Evaluation of the 5 components of GBM in UTP organization All evaluation findings are based on personal interview and observation from the members of the ITFO work group (figure 1.1). The evaluations resulted were obtained without difficulties because selected company is my workplace and I am one of the members of ITFO work group. These are the evaluations findings based on the GBM model: 3.1 An external condition is imposed on group. a) Organizational Strategy Overall strategy of the  organization  is usually  determined by top management. They  have  developed  the organizational goals  and  how  to achieve  these goals.  For example,  UTP has reduced costs of operation instead of hired outsource to organized convocation ceremony by build a certain group to handle it. ITFO group is formed to support such event directly. b) Authority structures Is defined who reports to whom, who make decisions, and the types of decisions are clearly stated to groups members. This structure was cleared to ITFO to follow hierarchical organization (figure 1.1), the formal leader of a group, and as well as formal relationships between the groups. UTP has established standard rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions and other forms. c) Formal Regulations UTP has employee regulation and personal conduct which is cleared to all employees. Its help to the company to determine group behaviour. d) Organizations Resource It found that, money is the major concern need to pay attention. such as when group request budget which is required from the task like purchase high end computer to accelerate particular job, it always take longer time to approve. Thus, activities of the group will effect. e) Employee Selection Process ITFO has selected member to enter the group is within UTPs staff and recommended by ITMS managers. f) Performance Appraisal and Reward System. The UTP management provides specific, challenging and achievable goals such as, become Research University in 2013 and also practiced cleared mention about Performance Appraisal and Reward System. Behavior of group members is influence by the manner in which organizations appraise a certain task that has been achieved and the kind of behavior that is rewarded. g) Culture. The ITFO followed the UTP standard culture which has no obstacle to be effective work group. All members are Muslim and also most of UTP Top management. Thus, culture is same among them. h) Workplace Condition UTP has provided better and amicable employees work environment. The opportunity for the interaction for the all work groups is excellence. 3.2 Resources for Group Members a) Personal Capability- According to the ITFO group members, the manager has been selecting each member following their skill and capability. For example, group of IT Helpdesk and Training (figure 1.1) is consist of capable members who are able to develop System Helpdesk and maintain. They have strong programming language. b) Personality Traits ITFO manager and supervisor which are support level and level 3 (figure 1.1) has determined each members from level 2 and 1 are based on personality trait. For example of some members which have lack of communication skill are not really suitable in Deployment and Production which is required good communication skill to interact outside from the groups. 3.3 Group Structure (a) Formal Leadership ITFO Leaders play an important role in the success of a group. (b) Roles Each member of a work group has their own role to play with a set of expected behavior patterns accompanying their position and responsibilities within the group. It found that, each person of ITFO have more than one role to play at any given time within their different groups. Beside of ITFO task, the members from level 2 and 1 (figure 1.1) have their main job such as computer lab administration. From the evaluation made, the level acceptance and satisfaction of tasks are moderate. (c) Norms In terms of quality, punctuality, absenteeism, safety, honesty in giving ideas and others, it was found the situations of all characteristic is fare, which means there are no big issue arise in the group. (d) Group Size It found that, the ITFO group size is acceptable to the tasks requirement. (e) Group Composition All group members of ITMS and ITFO have their skill and knowledge. It consists of various personalities gender, age, education level and experiences. Heterogeneous groups such ITFO IT Helpdesk and Deployment groups are more effective compared with homogeneous such as Inventory Management sub group because they possess more abilities, skills, and information as a result of having members from a variety of backgrounds. However, each group members have their own strengths and weaknesses. (f) Cohesiveness It found that, cohesiveness among ITFO is excellence because they interact well each other and the tasks given which is interrelated flows effectively. For example, the IT Helpdesk assigned task such as troubleshoot customer (lecturer) computer problem to the Deployment Production group. The result found they are easily interacts each other without conflict. 3.4 Group Processes ITFO work group has formed base on decision made from Support Level and Level 3 in figure 1.1. The main objective is to accelerate and give better IT Media services to UTP organisation. Based on the result since a year ITFO been established, effectiveness of the work group is still being monitored by ITMS manager. Support level has claimed that, there is positive movement in terms of efficiency of task given. For example, Deployment Production group (figure 1.1) has given task on migration of new computer laboratory instead of the custodian of the laboratory do their own migration which is consumed longer time and more effort. 3.5 Group Task Result from the findings, it found, with a simple or routine task, group members did well in term of follow the standard procedure in performing the task without the need to discuss the alternatives such as, how to log user problem in the Helpdesk system or how to install MS Office to the user computer. Similarly, group members have interact more often if the degree of task dependency is high. For example, available version of software like MATLAB cant be installed to the new OS computer. Thus, ITFO work group (inventory management and Deployment group) need to work together to find alternative and decision have to be made. Group performance of ITFO is having effective communication and minimum level of conflict among members. 4.0 Workgroups Performance and Satisfaction Based on the Group Behavior Model which I was elaborated above, can lead members of a group towards developing effective groups where it can improve performance and satisfaction of its members and ensure success of the organisation. From the findings, ITFO it closely to be an effective group due to the creative ideas among members, accomplish their tasks and can adapt to any changes such as IT revolution. As a IT manager on Support level in figure 1.1, he was able to see and assess the strategies required to develop effective groups in an organization. For example, he encourages the workgroups member to attend suitable training to particular area of their expertise such as inventory management system to the inventory management workgroup. Nevertheless, the level 3 (figure 1.1) need extra attention in cohesiveness matter to their subordinate group which resulted less cohesiveness. Then, a degree of understanding between the group leader and his/her members is moderate. For example, biasness occurred and favorable practices. If the situation can be eliminate, positive effect on the performance and satisfaction of group members will increase. 5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation to improve performance and satisfaction From the findings, it concluded that, better GBM approaches from selected company can lead members of a group towards developing effective groups where it can improve performance and satisfaction of its members and ensure success of the organization. External condition imposed on the group such as better performance appraisal and reward system is the most concerned into effectiveness of the work group performance and satisfaction. These are the three recommendations on how to improve performance satisfaction from the selected company: a) The performance appraisal and reward system from the company can be said stated clearly, but the result at the end is not the same of what members group has expected. Thus, misjudge about performance evaluation of the particular group must be eliminate and required accuracy. b) Cohesiveness of superior and support level 3 (figure 1.1) to their subordinate group members must be strength. According to Robbins (2004) Cohesiveness is importance because it has been found to be related to the groups productivity. To strengthen cohesiveness, the leader must frequently meet groups member such as conduct meeting twice a month, or involved external activity such as team building and sport event. c) From the findings, group task of each work group is claimed to be bias from certain member. For example, Deployment Production work group perceived that their task load is heavy compared to Inventory Management. Thus, leader must clearly state about task segregation and be balanced to each work groups member due to workgroup productivity and job satisfaction. Total number of words: 3387 References Dr. Faizuniah Pangil, Dr. Fais Ahmad, Dr. Ooi Yeng Keat, Hanisah A. Razak, Naslina Zakaria, Zulufli Aziz, Ruhana Busu, Assoc Prof Dr. Husna Johari (2010). BBGO4103 Organisational Behaviour. (2nd Edition). Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd. Selangor Darul Ehsan. Robbins, Stephen P (2003). Organizational Behavior (10th ed.). Pearson Educational, Incorporated. Schermerhorn, J.R., Hunt, J. G., Osborn, R. N. (2003). Organizational Behavior (8th ed.). USA: Wiley, John Sons, Incorporated. Collela, A., Hitt, M., Miller, C. (2006). Organisational behaviour: A strategic approach. USA: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Whai is workgroup. (n.d). Retrieved March 3, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workgroup

Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay

Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay Compare and contrast Poppers Theory of Falsifiability and Kuhns Theory of Paradigms. What are the implications of each for the conduct of Social Science? Poppers theory of falsifiability and Kuhns theory of paradigms have some significant differences, although they both argue for falsification as the general research method for all scientific disciplines. Accordingly, the consequences for the approach in the Social Sciences differ as well. The overall statement of this essay will be that Poppers theory allows a more aim-oriented research, which means that one has (theoretically) the chance to solve social problems intentionally. The scientist has the opportunity to gather objective knowledge about the equally objective social reality. In Kuhns view this is not possible, since any research and knowledge is subjective, it is influenced by the scientists paradigm. But here, a scientist can interpret social behaviour on a large scale and from within a specific world view, a way that is not open for Popper. The opportunity to find the truth about social reality comes at the expense of explanatory power. In order to show these implications it is necessary to point out the aspects of both theories relevant for this analysis, contrasting their common starting point and highlighting the differences that are substantial for the analysis of their application in the Social Sciences. Possibilities and Limits for Scientists in Kuhns and Poppers Theories The relevant aspects for this comparison of Poppers and Kuhns theories are best displayed if they are contrasted within the categories of ontology, epistemology and methodology. Since both of the theories are highly comprehensive, a more detailed division would probably not do them justice. But these broad categories allow a sufficient contrast for the proposed argument and lead up to the necessary insights about the notions of scientific progress that the theorists have respectively. For Popper, an objective reality exists that can be observed (Popper 1963: 226). As a scientist with the proper understanding of science though it is never possible to be absolutely certain that one has definitely found this reality, this absolute truth (Popper 2002 : 24). Most of the scientific statements are relative; they constitute hypotheses, and are therefore by their very form not expressions of absolute truth (Popper 1962: 221). Likewise, Kuhn is convinced of the existence of an objective reality, a truth, but unlike Popper he does not believe in the possibility to describe it, to discover it at all. Any knowledge about this reality is subjective, is shaped by the social context, by the individual socialisation of the scientist (Kuhn 1963: 120). It is already at this point that Kuhns idea of paradigms has to be introduced, which emphasizes the centrality of this notion for the entire theory. Kuhns paradigm is a vague concept; it can best be described as covering a range of fa ctors in scientific development including or somehow involving laws and theories, models, standards, and methods (both theoretical and instrumental), vague intuitions, explicit or implicit metaphysical beliefs (or prejudices). In short, anything that allows science to accomplish anything can be a part of (or somehow involved in) a paradigm. (Shapere 1980: 29) It is a deeply psychological concept with a highly unconscious nature which explains the difficulty defining it, let alone in analyzing its impact on science. For Kuhn, these paradigms are the beginning of what he calls normal science (Kuhn 1963: 42f.). It is only with such a paradigm that a scientist has enough fundamental orientation in his discipline to begin real scientific work (Kuhn 1963: 79). It cannot be emphasized enough that the scientists are unaware of having these paradigms. It is not something that they deliberately chose, rather it is something they acquired through a process of socialization (Kuhn 1963: 47f.). This clearly describes the communal nature of a paradigm (original italics, Eckberg and Hill 1980: 122). Therefore, a scientist will always see the objective reality through the subjective glasses of his paradigm. As to the epistemology, the pure method of falsification faces the problem of an infinite regress; if falsification is applied to every scientific statement, the research would not lead anywhere. Popper and Kuhn both carry on the tradition of science as it has been established by Positivism. Nevertheless, they are also aware of the question about theory-neutrality in research and the said problem of infinite regress, but they give different answers to this dilemma. Popper introduces the notion of background knowledge (Popper 2002: 25), which is such basic knowledge without which the scientist would not be able to conduct research in his discipline. Nevertheless, it is as provisional as any knowledge, and is potentially falsifiable just as any scientific statement that deserves the name (Popper 2002: 65). The basic knowledge is therefore an individual, subjective choice made by the scientist, but it is a deliberate and conscious one (Lakatos 1970: 105; Popper 2002: 85; Popper 1963: 24 5) which cannot be said about the paradigm. This does equally provide a useful solution to the problem of an infinite falsification, but one that is adopted unconsciously, since it is linked so closely to the actual conception of reality shared by the scientific community. A deliberate commitment to basic knowledge contrasts an involuntary commitment to a paradigm (Kuhn 1963: 97). In this regard, the incommensurability of paradigms has to be mentioned (Smith 1998: 195; Lakatos 1970: 93). Paradigms can be compared to a religious belief held by scientists, and its psychological nature does not allow holding two paradigms simultaneously (Keat and Urry 1982: 62; Kuhn 1963: 93; 151). It is no exaggeration that the process of a paradigm change is described as revolutionary (Kuhn 1963: 91ff.). We therefore have the result of a socialization process against an individual, conscious choice. Kuhn as well as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾emphasize [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] the intimate and inevitable entanglement o f scientific observation with scientific theory (Kuhn 1970: 2). But whereas in Poppers belief this entanglement can be influenced by the scientist, it is determined and beyond any deliberate change intended by an individual in Kuhns world. With regard to the methodology, Popper emphasizes the logic of science, that science and specifically social science is defined by the chosen method, and not by its results (Popper 1962: 218). Falsification is applied to the theory or rather the hypotheses to be tested, not to the background knowledge (for the time being). The choice is subjective (and is therefore reflecting values), but it is deliberate and rational and therefore acceptable. In Kuhns theory however, paradigms provide the research frame, and falsification works within it but is never applied to this frame (Kuhn 1963: 80). Successful falsification provides problems to be solved within the paradigm; they are like pieces to a puzzle which is in its entirety unknown (Wolin 1980: 170). According to Kuhn, there is no logic of science (Shapere1980: 30), only interpretation within a given paradigm is possible. If there is no paradigm, the scientists work on establishing one, so as to start with normal science. During a cris is that leads to a paradigm change, contradicting facts and the new paradigm are developed simultaneously (Kuhn 1963: 96, 140; Kuhn 1970: 10). The results of such a falsification process within the paradigm therefore is exactly what Popper calls the sociology of knowledge (Popper 1962: 220), a socially constructed and determined knowledge, precisely what he tries to evade. These aspects of ontology, epistemology and methodology lead to the notions about the possible progress that science can achieve. For Popper, knowledge is cumulative, since falsification is also a method that helps to refine theories (Popper 2002: 24). Whether it is the adjustment or reformulation of a theory after a successful falsification, or the resistance of a theory to the tests, both results are considered to be an improvement (Popper 1963: 245). Although the theory in the latter case might not be true, it is scientifically superior to those already falsified. The continuous formulation and rejection of theories as well as the work on new problems with reformulated theories is all considered to be a (cumulative) development of knowledge (Popper 1963: 215, 222; Popper 1962: 221). For Kuhn on the other hand, there is no general progress of cumulative knowledge, only a change of paradigms over time (Kuhn 1963: 156). New paradigms are adopted because the scientific community consi ders it to have greater potential for the new (albeit only vague, in their entirety unknown) problems to be solved. They have an essentially rational factor, and seem to be more useful for future research (Keat and Urry 1982: 169). But paradigms are exclusive, not derived from one another (Smith 1998: 195). Since knowledge is so closely connected to them, any growth of knowledge cannot objectively be ascertained (Kuhn 1970: 20f.). At the most, a form of progress can be observed within the workings of normal science, during the process of puzzle-solving (Dogan 2001: 11025). But there is no progress in the sense of coming closer to the truth (Keat and Urry 1982: 169). Different Connections between Theory and Observation: Consequences for the Social Sciences This contrast highlights the most important aspects of Kuhns and Poppers theories that are relevant to analyze the consequences that both approaches have for the Social Sciences respectively. Both imply individual restrictions as well as possibilities for them and in Poppers case the theory imposes even a normative duty on the scientist. He argues for a unity of science concerning the methods, which means that the procedure of formulating hypotheses and subjecting them to tests of falsification should be applied in the Social Sciences just as in any other (Stokes 1997: 58). It is a method that best supports the aim of objective research, trying to prevent the scientist from adopting a narrow, selective perception that only discerns proofs for the own theory but not its failures. All Science is fundamentally characterized by the method applied (Popper 2002: 29). But for Popper, Social Science specifically should be characterized by something else; by the ethical awareness every research project ought to have (Stokes 1997: 69). Before this is explained in greater detail however, it must be emphasized that such a normative component is of course not derivable from the objective facts describing Poppers theory. No normative responsibility can be derived from an actual condition. But Poppers theory allows it, and the cons equences from his falsificationist approach for the Social Sciences are largely dominated by this obligation. Apart from the question whether one agrees with him, his argument also points out the consequences for the Social Sciences and his theory in general, and it is an essential part of his approach. Popper demands a fundamentally practical orientation in the Social Sciences, any research project should contribute to the solution of social problems of their time. He also argues for more ethical awareness in the Social Sciences; in this case he is a child of his time. This attitude comes from experiences with totalitarianism and fascism (Stokes 1997: 57). But what is important in this context is that Popper therefore agues for the individual influence of scientific as well as extra-scientific values: His argument is that the individual choice of the scientist does not only expand on values such as scientific precision or intersubjectivity of research findings, as it is reflected by the choice for falsification as a method and by the choice for falsifiable, but for now untested background knowledge. It also applies to the scientists aims, to the problems he chooses to investigate. Broadly speaking, any research should eventually try to reduce human suffering (Stokes 1997: 60). Even if one does not agree with Poppers demand here, it highlights the opportunities open to a scientists according to his theory. Knowledge is cumulative, so the scientist has the possibility to take a conscious part in this accumulation of knowledge about the (objective) social reality (Popper 1962: 221). This objective reality can be the focus of research since it is possible to gather knowledge about it. Even the most fundamental assumptions or convictions, the background knowledge, can be questioned and altered. Any social influence on our knowledge can eventually be evaded, indirectly, by the choice of falsification as a method and by unconventional or for its time unusual choice of research topics. The scientist has not only the opportunity to discover the objective social reality, he can (and in Poppers view must) also endeavour to define the social problems of his time and propose solutions for it. This emphasis on the objective social reality as the focus and the denial of any socially constructed limits of the research has even further implications. There are abstract as well as tangible objects in Social Science. Its scientists are engaged in analyzing social problems, general phenomenons or dynamics, things that have an undeniably abstract nature. On the other hand though it is the individual who is identified as the causal unity of these phenomenons, it is the objective, observable reality which has to be the center for any hypotheses or theory that fulfills the criteria of falsifiability. A theory that has a holistic character and applies to the abstract objects of social reality itself cannot meet the standards for intersubjective testing, for an experiment to be repeated and tested over and over again (Popper 1962: 218). So while the eventual aim is of course to understand the dynamics and causes of abstract constructs in social reality, its research is restricted to th e individual. On the one hand, Poppers scientist can therefore consciously choose his object of research, can be specifically aim-oriented, and is therefore not limited to a purely explanatory role. On the other hand, it is impossible for him to consciously work within a specific, personal belief about the social reality that he never questions during his research (Popper 1962: 212). Explanations within the belief systems like Marxism or elitism that intend to explain social reality within this frame are therefore not possible, since these beliefs do not fulfill the standards of permissible background knowledge. A last remark has to be made on Poppers view about the Social Sciences. It is exactly against the perceived dangers of such social frames that he argues for the publicity of Science (Stokes 1997: 74; Popper 1962: 217f.). To complete the standards of critical research, to guarantee that intersubjectivity and falsifiability are adhered to the results (and the method) of research have to be published. The critical appraisal by other scientists is needed to establish the highest possible objectivity. The strength of Poppers approach lies therefore in the fact that the scientist has more free will in choosing his objectives, and that this choice also implies a normative choice. This is the consequence of Poppers particular connection between theory and observation, that science is not value-free, neither on the level of aims nor when it comes to its method, but these values are acceptable as long as they are a conscious choice. For a scientist in Kuhns approach though this choice is made for him by the paradigm. In the case that there is no paradigm yet, scientists have not even entered the stage of real scientific progress of their discipline; they have not yet started with normal science (Kuhn 1963: 79). According to Kuhn, this is exactly the case for the Social Sciences (Kuhn 1970: 6; Wolin 1980: 169). But even if the Social Sciences had already acquired a paradigm in Kuhns definition, such aim-oriented research like Popper proposes it would not be possible. The scientist would of course have an objective for his research, but he cannot claim to have chosen it objectively, let alone having done so out of the normative conviction to ultimately discover and evade any social aspect to his research and knowledge. This social influence that the scientist is unaware of is but the starting point for real research, also in the Social Sciences. Some consider the different schools within Social Sciences as paradigms, although this contradicts the unconscious character of a paradigm according to Kuhns interpretation. It is argued that overarching concepts such as paradigms built on more solid ground in the natural sciences than in the social sciences, because in the former truth is universal, in the latter, contextual. (Dogan 2001: 11026) If paradigms are going to appear in the Social Sciences, they will only be realized in the narrow form of different schools that are not characterized by incommensurability, but by mutual avoidance (Dogan 2001: 11024). Even though this idea does not realize all characteristics of a paradigm, its example is most useful here. The Scientist does of course not enjoy the freedom that he has in Poppers view. He is exposed to the norms of his school and he has to realize that even an approach that he considers to be most revolutionary and unconventional is probably still within the boundaries of th is school. For the rare case that such deviant behavior should happen despite the deep socialization of the individual scientist, then the paradigmatic community will not tolerate it and most likely simply ignore his findings (Wolin 1980: 167f.). It is not possible for an individual to deliberately convince all the members of this specific attitude to change it radically. Such change is incremental and therefore happens only gradually (Wolin 1980: 175). But then he can explain the social reality from this particular point or belief system. He has possibilities for explanation that are unavailable for a scientist in Poppers theory. It is not without coincidence that Marxism is considered to be such a powerful school in Social Science that it comes close to what Kuhn describes as a paradigm (Dogan 2001: 11026), a school that is given as one of the typical examples (Popper 1962: 212) of the social bias and subjectivity that has to be avoided according to Popper. Intersubjectivity is a therefore an important value for Kuhn as well as for Popper, but whereas this scientific value only applies within the paradigmatic community for Kuhn, for Popper it is precisely the means to evade such influence. The social reality that is always perceived subjectively can therefore be thoroughly explained and described from within these world views, and the progress scientists make with this kind of research is relatively substantial, since they can accept more easily the findings of their colleagues. They can interpret behavior, specific social rules, and are not restricted to describe individual behavior like Popper. But this advantage in explaining social phenomena therefore comes at the price of aim-oriented research such as it is possible in Poppers view. The puzzle-solving process during normal science is after all defined by the fact that the bigger picture of the puzzle is unknown (Wolin 1980: 170). Accepting a paradigm and work within its boundaries is compared to a kind of religious change (Lakatos 1970: 93). The scientist cannot make its structures visible, not on purpose at least. He has to rely on the intangible dynamic that characterizes normal science. He has only the possibil ity to choose scientific values, and even that only to a limited extent (Kuhn 1963: 17). He also has to accept that there are possibly some social problems or facts of the objective social reality that does, after all, exist that he does not perceive at all due to his paradigm. And if the Social Science is truly without a paradigm so far, the stage of normal research where a form of progress is finally possible has not even begun. Conclusion Both Poppers theory of falsification and Kuhns theory of paradigms assume the existence of an objective social reality and are convinced of the merits of falsification as the acceptable method for its research. They are equally considering the problem of theory neutrality in the Social Sciences as well as continuing the tradition of Positivism that does not see a fundamental difference for science within its different disciplines. Nevertheless, Kuhn and Popper differ in their opinions about the acceptable solution to this question about theory-neutrality, about the relation between theory and observation. Poppers ontology and epistemology demand potential falsifiability for all scientific statements in order to discover this objective truth and evade the pitfalls of the subjective bias. What he considers to be the absolute fall of science is only its beginning in Kuhns view. Only paradigms, unconscious social frameworks, allow progressive research, and any knowledge about reality mus t be subjective. The consequences of Poppers view for Social Sciences in particular consist in the possibility to deliberately work on the social problems of the time, and in the conviction that the any social fact can eventually be discovered. It comes at a reduced ability to explain social phenomena holistically and from within a specific worldview that cannot be operationalised into falsifiable hypotheses. This is exactly what a researcher in Kuhns world can do, albeit at the expense of the said advantages Poppers scientist has.

teenage wasteland Essay -- essays research papers

The Teenage Wasteland, why was it so good? Growing up in the recent generations is very challenging. Children at such young ages, even younger than teens have been faced with such perilous decisions. It is especially hard for teenagers to find acceptance at this point in their lives. Here is an instance that is so common in this day and age, yet this particular case is only fiction. A teenage boy named Donny has been going through a few changes in his appearance. His parents, Matt and Daisy, are somewhat disturbed yet they don’t say much to him. Then one day Daisy gets a call from Donny’s school administrator and tells her that his grades are attitude are dropping scale. He eventually gets kicked out of private school and does poorly in public school. Daisy was concerned and decided to take advice from the school and psychologist to get help from a highly reputable tutor, Calvin Applebee. Instead of Donny’s parents talking to their son they hire Cal, which tries to handle Donny’s lack of emotion an d performance. Donny’s performance didn’t change with Cal, at least in the school aspect, but Cal kept reassuring Daisy and Matt that it would change and to give it more time. In result, Donny runs away after being sent home because he was expelled for being caught with drugs in his locker and months later he still has not returned home. Who is to blame? Should Daisy and Matt been more disciplined on Donny? Well, in Anne Tyler’s short story the Teenage Wasteland this is just what happened. I really enjoyed this story because I feel it really focused on an issue that is so common in our generation. It was easy to read and was straight to the point. I especially enjoyed the role of the dumbfounded parents, Cal’s cynical character, and in result of the all their foolishness, the action Donny resulted in taking. It was really funny to me to see how Donny’s parents could be so oblivious to all that was happening to Donny. They were very good parents but didn’t but enough discipline on him. They instead let the school, the psychologist, and especially the Cal run the life of Donny. Daisy and Matt should never have given so much control to everyone else over their own son. Daisy tried helping Donny in school, even having to start supper late at times and spending less time around her other daughter. It wasn’t always pleasant because when Matt would come home she would... ...r’s story may not have been happy but it ended as more of a realistic matter. Maybe she decided to conclude the book with the disappearance of Donny to show some parents how important is truly is to communicate and love their children unless they want the same thing to happened to their children that Donny experienced. I really enjoyed â€Å"Teenage Wasteland† because it displayed a topical issue some parents have actually faced in their lifetime. It was exceptional the way the story was wrapped up. Not that I don’t enjoy happy endings but I am more interested in reading stories that may be written in fiction but that I can actually relate to and imagine it happening. Anne Tyler displayed this real life situation through a fiction tale that has such valuable lessons to be learned. Donny’s just a teenager who was going through a rough time in his life and just wanted to be loved and to love himself. It isn’t always happy the way children turn out but parents do make the difference and communication is a key to success. I feel Tyler displayed this quite clear in her short story so everyone could learn a lesson worth learning to prevent this astounding situation from happening to others.

Growth for the Future: Biofuels Essay -- Economics Economy Papers

Growth for the Future: Biofuels The internal combustion engine, so vital for sustaining America's burgeoning economy, is omnipresent in most vehicles from the greatest semis to the smallest economy cars. The combustion engine is also a mode of transportation that is fraught with problems, both costing billions of U.S. dollars to fuel and causing enormous air pollution problems. Iowa, the nation's largest producer of corn and a leading agricultural state, may have the solution to the problems caused by the enormous burden of gasoline and diesel powered engines, biofuel. Biofuels coming out of Iowa include biodiesel, a diesel fuel additive, and ethanol, a gasoline additive. Both are locally produced products that reduce domestic dependence on volatile foreign oil prices, decrease polluting emissions and stimulate the local economy. Every internal combustion engine is built the same. It is composed of a varying number of fuel-saturated gas-filled chambers called cylinders. Each cylinder is expanded and compressed by a piston, driven by a rotating arm called a crankshaft. Every time the piston is pushed into the cylinder, gas inside is compressed to nearly 6 to 10 times atmospheric pressure. At this instant of maximum pressure, the gasoline-saturated air is ignited by a spark and the mixture literally explodes, causing the gas to expand rapidly and force the piston back down, then to come back up again to repeat the process20. When the piston is pushed back down, the crankshaft rotates and performs work which can be harnessed to drive the vehicle. This process, unfortunately, does not capture all of the energy contained in the gasoline, in fact it only uses about one-fifth of the available chemical energy20. Diesel engine... ...hew, "A New Breed of Fuel," Canadian Business. (2002). 14Paulos, Bentham, "Renewable Energy Proposals Are Inadequate, Say Environmental Groups," American Wind Energy Association. (2000). 15Stipp, David, "Why Ethanol Is No Longer a Punch Line," Fortune. (2000). 16Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Energy Bureau, "Switch grass and Other Energy Crops." http://www.sate.ea.us/dnr/energy/pubs/irerg/switchgrass.htm 17Economagic.com, "Unemployment Rate: Iowa." http://www.economagic.com. (2003). 18Iowa Corn, "Where Does America's (Iowa's) Corn Go?" Educational Information. http://www.iowacorn.org/consumption.htm. (2002). 19Renewable Fuels Association, "U.S. Ethanol Industry Today." http://www.ethanolRFA.org. (2002). 20Kraushaar, Jack J. and Ristinen, Robert A., Energy and the Environment, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 2002), pp. 73-77, 293-299.

Abortion Cases of the 19th Century :: Essays Papers

Abortion Cases of the 19th Century Although abortions were very dangerous, as well as socially unacceptable during the nineteenth century, women were not altogether unable to obtain abortions and many suffered accusations of infanticide. Here I will present a few of the more famous cases from the period, demonstrating the occurrence of abortion, the availability of providers, and the consequences faced by those who necessitated the procedure. One case that dominated the pages of The Revolution, the paper owned by Susan B. Anthony and edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Parker Pillsbury, was the sentencing of a young girl to hang for the death of her child. While not a case of abortion, the death was termed an infanticide and drew strong opinions from the public as well as both the editors. The unfortunate Hester Vaughan, an English girl living in Philadelphia, was discovered in a tiny tenement room devoid of furniture February 8, 1868, forty-eight hours after giving birth. Alone during labor, without food or heat, she was found frail and feverish with her baby dead beside her. She was immediately brought to the police and imprisoned, under the assumption that she had killed her child. For thirty dollars, she acquired the services of a lawyer by the name of Goforth and underwent a brief trial. Having never actually confessed to committing the crime, she was nonetheless sentenced to death by County Judge Ludlow, and placed in Moyamensing Prison until her execution. Once news of the case reached the public, the women of The Revolution unleashed their sympathies in article after article denouncing the indictment. In an August 6, 1868 editorial it was written: â€Å" If that poor child of sorrow is hung, it will be deliberate, downright murder. Her death will be far more horrible infanticide than was the killing of her child. She is the child of our society and civilization, begotten and born of it, seduced by it, by the judge who pronounced her sentence, by the bar and jury, by the legislature that enacted the law (in which because a woman, she had no vote or voice), by the church and the pulpit that sanctify the law and deeds, of all these will her blood, yea, and her virtue too, be required! All these were the joint seducer, and now see if by hanging her, they will also become her murderer.† However, Hester never had to face the day of her execution and instead spent nearly two years in jail.

Are we humans the product of nature or nurture? Essay

Nature is how much of your personality is genetic, what you were born with. Nurture is how much of your personality was caused because of your environment, how you were raised. So does nature or nurture contribute more to someone’s personality and behaviour? Or do they both play a role in shaping our lives? I hope to come to a conclusion with this debate in the end of my thesis. With nurturing, people tend to observe others actions and behaviour, and try to be like others. As a result, the human behaviour is the result of experience and imitating. The social learning theory suggests that we learn through imitation and observation. It also suggests that people learn within the environment and get approval from the public by learning through an influential model. Bandura, a known psychologist found that according to this theory, a model can be the main cause for learning new actions. However, when there is a role model that illustrates bad behaviour, that behaviour could be imitated by young children. A few psychologists criticised Bandura’s theories- where children behaved more aggressively after observing violent acts from their family members. This meant that children, who witness their parent’s aggressive behaviour, have a higher risk of being abusive later on in their life. This theory is also questionable as there could be other factors, like genetics, which affect the behaviour. Our behaviour is more influenced by the genes we inherit than the environment we are brought up in. When socialisation does affect our identities, genetic and hormonal factors have a greater impact. For instance, there was a twin study, where the research twins had been separated at birth and adopted by different families. They both had met a wife with the same name, and their dogs had the same name, with many other striking similarities. They met 39 years after being separated. This proves that intelligence and talents are more likely genetic than environmental. Some scientists say, when contrasts are made between genetically connected twins, it is simple and easy to take account on the similarities and then overlook the behaviours that are distinct. For a person’s physical features; the appearance, genes play a bigger role. Yet, in the making of one’s individuality and behaviour, it can be nothing more than the environment they are raised in and how they are nurtured. People are sometimes taught into a certain style and norms. Evidently, in religions, whether you’re Christian or Muslim, you are raised up with the customs that follow the religion. So its indoctrinated to you when growing up. Some people may say, no two people have the exact same genes. So everyone is genetically one of a kind. Also, people may have been raised in similar environments, so they are nearly the same nurture-wise. Then, nature could have a bigger impact. The actions of someone’s life can occur without being learned by the individual. It is believed that inherent or innate behaviour comes from the genetic structure of an individual. For instance, alcoholism, bipolar disorder or depression are all psychological disorders that can be passed heritably from a parent to the child. Studies show that children who have alcoholic parents with similar genetics are 4 times more likely to become alcoholic than children with parents are not alcoholic. The question still arises, born or raised an addict? Some would disagree with the fact that it is all in the genetics. Maybe the people around you are the bigger influence in you wanting to take a swig of the booze. And that’s where the social factors come in to play. Likewise, the media could portray the fact that over drinking can be acceptable. With everyone having their own judgments, there is no exact answer to this. In the end, not everyone may come into agreement with this debate. The nature and nurture of an individual can fluctuate to a great extent. Some things are hard to decide if they are inherited or learned by the surroundings. I believe that genes can bring about certain behaviours in an individual. Moreover, that the environment and upbringing can help make the behaviour precede to something more than just behaviour, possibly a talent. For example, a boy may be good at tennis. He will need the proper surroundings where he can develop his skills to play more tennis. Nature and nurture work  hand in hand. Nature needs nurture to convey the behaviour of an individual. Thus, the known terms of this distinguished debate should not be ‘nature versus nurture’ but ‘nature and nurture’. ï » ¿Are we humans the product of nature or nurture? Essay Nature is how much of your personality is genetic, what you were born with. Nurture is how much of your personality was caused because of your environment, how you were raised. So does nature or nurture contribute more to someone’s personality and behaviour? Or do they both play a role in shaping our lives? I hope to come to a conclusion with this debate in the end of my thesis. With nurturing, people tend to observe others actions and behaviour, and try to be like others. As a result, the human behaviour is the result of experience and imitating. The social learning theory suggests that we learn through imitation and observation. It also suggests that people learn within the environment and get approval from the public by learning through an influential model. Bandura, a known psychologist found that according to this theory, a model can be the main cause for learning new actions. However, when there is a role model that illustrates bad behaviour, that behaviour could be imitated by young children. A few psychologists criticised Bandura’s theories- where children behaved more aggressively after observing violent acts from their family members. This meant that children, who witness their parent’s aggressive behaviour, have a higher risk of being abusive later on in their life. This theory is also questionable as there could be other factors, like genetics, which affect the behaviour. Our behaviour is more influenced by the genes we inherit than the environment we are brought up in. When socialisation does affect our identities, genetic and hormonal factors have a greater impact. For instance, there was a twin study, where the research twins had been separated at birth and adopted by different families. They both had met a wife with the same name, and their dogs had the same name, with many other striking similarities. They met 39 years after being separated. This proves that intelligence and talents are more likely genetic than environmental. Some scientists say, when contrasts are made between genetically connected twins, it is simple and easy to take account on the similarities and then overlook the behaviours that are distinct. For a person’s physical features; the appearance, genes play a bigger role. Yet, in the making of one’s individuality and behaviour, it can be nothing more than the environment they are raised in and how they are nurtured. People are sometimes taught into a certain style and norms. Evidently, in religions, whether you’re Christian or Muslim, you are raised up with the customs that follow the religion. So its indoctrinated to you when growing up. Some people may say, no two people have the exact same genes. So everyone is genetically one of a kind. Also, people may have been raised in similar environments, so they are nearly the same nurture-wise. Then, nature could have a bigger impact. The actions of someone’s life can occur without being learned by the individual. It is believed that inherent or innate behaviour comes from the genetic structure of an individual. For instance, alcoholism, bipolar disorder or depression are all psychological disorders that can be passed heritably from a parent to the child. Studies show that children who have alcoholic parents with similar genetics are 4 times more likely to become alcoholic than children with parents are not alcoholic. The question still arises, born or raised an addict? Some would disagree with the fact that it is all in the genetics. Maybe the people around you are the bigger influence in you wanting to take a swig of the booze. And that’s where the social factors come in to play. Likewise, the media could portray the fact that over drinking can be acceptable. With everyone having their own judgments, there is no exact answer to this. In the end, not everyone may come into agreement with this debate. The nature and nurture of an individual can fluctuate to a great extent. Some things are hard to decide if they are inherited or learned by the surroundings. I believe that genes can bring about certain behaviours in an individual. Moreover, that the environment and upbringing can help make the behaviour precede to something more than just behaviour, possibly a talent. For example, a boy may be good at tennis. He will need the proper surroundings where he can develop his skills to play more tennis. Nature and nurture work hand in hand. Nature needs nurture to convey the behaviour of an individual. Thus, the known terms of this distinguished debate should not be ‘nature versus nurture’ but ‘nature and nurture’. ï » ¿Are we humans the product of nature or nurture? Essay Nature is how much of your personality is genetic, what you were born with. Nurture is how much of your personality was caused because of your environment, how you were raised. So does nature or nurture contribute more to someone’s personality and behaviour? Or do they both play a role in shaping our lives? I hope to come to a conclusion with this debate in the end of my thesis. With nurturing, people tend to observe others actions and behaviour, and try to be like others. As a result, the human behaviour is the result of experience and imitating. The social learning theory suggests that we learn through imitation and observation. It also suggests that people learn within the environment and get approval from the public by learning through an influential model. Bandura, a known psychologist found that according to this theory, a model can be the main cause for learning new actions. However, when there is a role model that illustrates bad behaviour, that behaviour could be imitated by young children. A few psychologists criticised Bandura’s theories- where children behaved more aggressively after observing violent acts from their family members. This meant that children, who witness their parent’s aggressive behaviour, have a higher risk of being abusive later on in their life. This theory is also questionable as there could be other factors, like genetics, which affect the behaviour. Our behaviour is more influenced by the genes we inherit than the environment we are brought up in. When socialisation does affect our identities, genetic and hormonal factors have a greater impact. For instance, there was a twin study, where the research twins had been separated at birth and adopted by different families. They both had met a wife with the same name, and their dogs had the same name, with many other striking similarities. They met 39 years after being separated. This proves that intelligence and talents are more likely genetic than environmental. Some scientists say, when contrasts are made between genetically connected twins, it is simple and easy to take account on the similarities and then overlook the behaviours that are distinct. For a person’s physical features; the appearance, genes play a bigger role. Yet, in the making of one’s individuality and behaviour, it can be nothing more than the environment they are raised in and how they are nurtured. People are sometimes taught into a certain style and norms. Evidently, in religions, whether you’re Christian or Muslim, you are raised up with the customs that follow the religion. So its indoctrinated to you when growing up. Some people may say, no two people have the exact same genes. So everyone is genetically one of a kind. Also, people may have been raised in similar environments, so they are nearly the same nurture-wise. Then, nature could have a bigger impact. The actions of someone’s life can occur without being learned by the individual. It is believed that inherent or innate behaviour comes from the genetic structure of an individual. For instance, alcoholism, bipolar disorder or depression are all psychological disorders that can be passed heritably from a parent to the child. Studies show that children who have alcoholic parents with similar genetics are 4 times more likely to become alcoholic than children with parents are not alcoholic. The question still arises, born or raised an addict? Some would disagree with the fact that it is all in the genetics. Maybe the people around you are the bigger influence in you wanting to take a swig of the booze. And that’s where the social factors come in to play. Likewise, the media could portray the fact that over drinking can be acceptable. With everyone having their own judgments, there is no exact answer to this. In the end, not everyone may come into agreement with this debate. The nature and nurture of an individual can fluctuate to a great extent. Some things are hard to decide if they are inherited or learned by the surroundings. I believe that genes can bring about certain behaviours in an individual. Moreover, that the environment and upbringing can help make the behaviour precede to something more than just behaviour, possibly a talent. For example, a boy may be good at tennis. He will need the proper surroundings where he can develop his skills to play more tennis. Nature and nurture work hand in hand. Nature needs nurture to convey the behaviour of an individual. Thus, the known terms of this distinguished debate should not be ‘nature versus nurture’ but ‘nature and nurture’.